The development process in Japan is very different to most Western countries, and this has significant implications for what is built and its design. There are also strong cultural differences, which affect the form of cities and attitudes to the public realm. The history of cities is also radically different in Japan from the west: urbanization only started a century ago, but many major cities were destroyed in the 1929 earthquake and the Second World War. Around Tokyo Bay particularly, there has been very rapid urbanization over the last 50 years, and planning controls, often based on European models, have tried to keep pace with what was happening on the ground.

During this period of rapid urbanization, building took place in an unplanned way on any land (usually agricultural) that was within commuting distance of cities. The result was urban areas with little public infrastructure and a very poor environmental quality. Housing in these areas was often very dense without proper roads between buildings, creating a serious fire risk. Land is in a multitude of ownerships, based on the original ownership of small rice fields.

Chiba City is about 40km east of Tokyo on the shore of Tokyo Bay. It was almost totally destroyed by bombing in 1945. Although it has developed very rapidly in the last 50 years from 100,000 population to 850,000, it did not become an independent city until 1992. It has developed primarily as a dormitory for Tokyo, but there is now a strong emphasis on transforming it into a more self-sufficient city. Attempts to expand the existing central business area are inevitably hampered by existing land ownership, and therefore a completely new town centre (shown above) is being created at Makuhari on reclaimed land.

Described as the largest urban development project in Japan, Makuhari is an example of public expenditure on a massive scale, to create a new business centre with 150,000 jobs and a population of 26,000. It has been developed by the Chiba Prefecture on reclaimed land and is an example of a wholly planned urban development. Whilst the project is obviously a long way off completion, with a population of only 6,000 to date, there are very interesting examples of urban design within it.

Interestingly the guide rejects the conventional approach to urban design in Japan as being 'unrelated and chaotic' and instead looks to precedents in Europe, such as terraced housing in London and urban housing in Paris. The guide is prescriptive, defining height, wall to window ratios, elevational character, balcony projections, and roof materials and form. The guide was issued in 1991 and by 1995 the first six phases ('Patios') of about 100 flats were complete.

The quality of these developments is impressive. Despite the restrictions of the design guide the different Patios have individual character and the overall development fits together well. The quality of the streetscape is superb with very attractive materials and street furniture. One particular development, Patio 11 was designed by American architect Steven Holl, in a striking modernist style. In Makuhari, the Japanese have taken 'European style' urban housing and re-invented it for the 21st century, setting a model for the urban renaissance being promoted in Britain.

This ambitious project was conceived in the 1960's as a way of linking the two commercial areas in Yokohama, one around the main railway station and the other at Kannai. It was to be achieved by relocating a major shipyard and reclaiming land from the sea, thus creating a site of 186 hectares. Site preparation was started in 1983 with three primary objectives, the first of which was to substantially increase the size of the commercial centre in the City, thus promoting the city's independence from Tokyo. The second objective was to dramatically improve the quality of the urban environment in the centre of Yokohama, and create an attractive seafront with a park and an international convention centre. The third objective was to facilitate the decentralisation of Tokyo and assist in the creation of a balanced metropolitan area.

A development agreement reached in 1988 established a Town Council who had responsibility for implementing a detailed masterplan. This established the layout, the zoning, the use of buildings, their heights and a number of detailed urban design principles. The infrastructure for the project is extremely sophisticated with underground pipework and ducts distributing all the usual services plus district heating and collecting refuse for recycling.

Yokohama Portside

This is another distinctive development adjacent to Yokohama station and initiated as a result of the decision to construct a major road through the middle to provide access to Minato Mirai. It is a mixed-use area, although predominantly residential. This proposal generated a lot of concern from residents and business owners, and they exerted pressure for the preparation of a comprehensive plan, that would create a high quality neighbourhood satisfying their cultural and spiritual aspirations. After the establishment of a residents and landowners group, the concept of a 'city of art and design' was adopted for Portside.

Unusually, the area was designated a Comprehensive Improvement Promotion Project, which resulted in an agreement between all landowners being reached allowing the comprehensive redevelopment of the whole area. This would be carried out in accordance with a very detailed master plan, which specified in considerable detail the form, height, and even colour of new development. All along there was a determination to produce a very distinctive area with exceptional standards of design and a large quantity of public art.

The master plan was jointly funded by the community group and the City. A local office was established to manage the project, and the community have continued to be involved in discussions about the selection of designers and artists. Developers have been persuaded to follow the art and design concept and follow the urban design guidelines by being allowed to adopt higher plot ratios, increased from 200% to 500%. The result of this is the inclusion of public art and art galleries within the buildings, increased widths of pavements and higher quality paving materials.

One of the first blocks to be developed was a 27 storey residential block designed by the post-modernist American architect Michael Graves. Other projects of note are the medium-rise Gallery Road housing and the waterfront park, which was the subject of an international design competition. There can be no doubt that Portside is a very distinctive development that can only enhance the reputation of Yokohama as a city.